“Drawing on at least two social psychology theories, critically evaluate your chosen theories on their ability to explain how an individual’s social identity is formed. When critically evaluating the theories and / or explanations you should refer to the methodological issues involved and alternative explanations given by them to explain the same phenomenon. You should also reflect on the historical and contemporary contexts of these two theories.”
The theories that I have chosen for my essay are Schema theory and Social Identity theory. The reason that I have decided to critically evaluate Schema theory is because it is a difficult theory to initially understand, but schemas are a significant aspect that we all experience on a daily basis. Schema theory is not attributed to a single psychologist, but developed over many decades by various psychologist including notable contributions from Bartlett, Piaget and Vygotsky.
Schema theory is that the knowledge of our environment and situations is organised and categorised, which then influences our cognition and behaviour. A schema is a cluster of memory or knowledge that is stored in the mind, often referred to as a “cognitive frameworks” as they are a system for categorising and organising information and memory.
Schema theory helps the individual to make sense of the complex world and information overload in which we live. We store experiences in schemas in our mind, therefore making generalisations about places, situations and people. Stereotypes and how we generalise others and past experiences allows us to save energy. For example, a child may learn that an animal that lives in a field, has four legs, two ears and a tail and is usually black or brown in colour is a cow. The child stores that information about a cow in a schema in their mind. However, on a future occasion the child may mistake a horse for a cow as they have similar description. The child would need to draw on the schema stored in their mind about a cow and with the new information they’ve learnt create another schema for the horse. Schemas work in this way and are used to quickly begin to understand a situation.
However, they can be problematic as its impossible to see the world and experiences by just recalling past experiences or schemas as that may create bias, judgement and lead to misunderstandings. New information can enhance our schema and improve our comprehension of the new information as evidenced in Bransford and Johnson’s study. However, by using a schema in a certain situation or with a group of people, new information may be distorted and made to fit into the original schema as that would be cognitively easier to navigate. This problem may lead to recalling details or experiences from your original schema and the bias may reinforce your original stereotype.
Schemas have three basic processes; attention, encoding and retrieval. Firstly, what information we notice, then how we store it and finally retrieve that information to use in social situations that we encounter.
Educational researchers use aspects of schema therapy in their studies, because understanding how existing knowledge can influence comprehension of new information, can improve an individual’s ability to learn, read and digest new concepts of comprehension skills. So, it makes a lot of sense to use in educational setting.
The theory by Barlett, proposed that individuals had schemata or unconscious mental structures that represent an individual’s generic knowledge of the world, through these schemata old knowledge influenced new knowledge. However, this approach was not taken on board and schema theory was not accepted until later work and research in the field.
The three stages of Piaget’s Cognitive Theory: the stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational); the adaptive process from one stage to another and schemas which are the building blocks. He defined a schema as: “a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning.” Piaget (1952, p. 7). Piaget referred to the schema as a basic building blocks of intellectual units of knowledge that we can organise and categorise.
Piaget emphasises the importance of schema and how we store and use the information in certain situations. Many researchers describe this as a script, and usually give the example of buying a meal in a restaurant. Due to past experiences, an individual may go into a restaurant, wait to be seated, look at the menu, order drinks and then food, eat the food as it arrives in depending on the different courses and choices made and then pay the bill before leaving the restaurant.
Vygotsky’s cognitive development theory highlights that social interact is fundamental to cognitive development, using culture-specific tools, language and thoughts and zone of proximal development. Vygotsky’s theory of zone of proximal development is an important concept in education as teachers use it as a guide to a child’s development. The child’s conceptual ability is stretched through the child’s imagination and how the child plays.
Schema theory is increasingly being used in the field of mental health, especially with complex disorders such as personality disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder. In the book Contextual Schema Therapy: An Integrative Approach to Personality Disorders, Emotional Dysregulation, and Interpersonal Functioning written by Roediger et al (2018) the Schema theory is referred to as ‘reparenting’ as that is what good parents do with their children. They go on to describe how the therapist models good practice especially in the early stages, with the client taking a more involved role as they master the skills and strategies taught to navigate the middle road and challenge their schemas.
Self-reflection and self-compassion are major parts of schema therapy.
Young in 1999, (p.9) describes schemas as “broad, pervasive themes regarding oneself and one’s relationship with others, developed during childhood and elaborated throughout one’s lifetime, and dysfunctional to a significant degree”
This definition highlights the importance of our early influences, the underlying emotional needs to grow and develop a healthy sense of wellbeing.
The basics that an individual needs to grow; such as security, care and developing their own independence and thriving throughout their lives, within secure and safe socially accepted boundaries. Young (2003) needs satisfaction leads to healthy schemas, and needs frustration leads directly to the development of early maladaptive schemas. However, if we have unmet needs as a child, it could be negative for the individual as it can form unhealthy beliefs or thinking processes about ourselves and the world around us, therefore shaping our future influences and coping strategies. (Riso et al., 2006, cited by Dawes 2014a).
Over recent years researchers have identified specific early maladaptive schemas, focusing on different themes of beliefs that the person may hold. They are five different domains grouped together dependent on the general focus or unmet needs (Young et al., 2003, cited by Dawes 2014b). These are;
• The domain of ‘disconnection and rejection’, which may be due to disruptive relationships, the lack of care from significant others or feeling unsafe. That may lead to thinking that emotional support is not met.
• The ‘impaired autonomy and performance’ domain refers to extreme neglect or controlling influences and impacts on self-identity and confidence.
• The ‘impaired limits’ domain, results from minimal supervision and boundary setting as a child and may impact on the individual’s ability to set realistic goals, consider others and show self-control
• The ‘Other-directedness’ domain is when an individual puts the needs, thoughts and feelings of others before their own needs to gain acceptance or affection
• The last domain is ‘over-vigilance and inhibition’ which is about being in an environment whereby perfectionism and firm boundaries are considered more important than enjoyment and everyday events that create pleasure.
Roediger et al (2018) In schema therapy terms, an attractor is a schema. The neurobiological model thus gives a unique perspective on schemas (or attractors) at a deeper level of analysis, and in this way, many of the findings of neuroscience may be related to schema therapy. In the schema context, learning is about building up new attractors (or schemas) and creating different or alternative pathways. However, moving from one attractor (schema) to another requires energy to overcome the challenges moving between them. The “energy” that a therapist brings to therapy by way of technique (for example, through imagery work) or the therapist’s presence (limited reparenting), or both, supports schema changes within the client that they would otherwise struggle to manage by themself. The therapist (and later the client’s healthy adult mode) acts like a catalyst in a chemical reaction.
Since schemas are like footpaths in the neural structure of the brain, they cannot be deleted or healed in the sense of undoing them (Hayes et al., 2012 cited by Roediger et al., 2018). However, by developing additional pathways, we can build up a superposing network, for example, by building up inhibitory synaptic connections. This kind of overlearning weakens the attractors and makes changing into more functional attractor states easier. In the footpath metaphor, that means consciously taking a new road and not following automatic pilot. According to the control theory of Power (1973), doing this requires influencing the existing system from a higher level of functioning. In the beginning of therapy, this influence is the therapist (cited by Roediger et al., 2018)
The second theory that I have chosen is social identity theory which refers to how we see ourselves within group processes, membership and inter group relations. Social identity theory is different to the schema theory as in the schema theory we interact with others based on our schemas (past experiences which may influence our future responses). Social identity theory proposes that the individual sees themselves differently depending on the identity and rules of the groups in which they join. British social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner in 1979 founded the Social identity theory. Tajfel and Turner’s theory focuses on the fact that the individual is not just one self but a combination of different identities and images dependant on the groups in which they belong. An individual is usually a member of a number of groups, such as a family, sports group, work or school based sub-groups and other groups that they have an interest in or feel that membership of will be of benefit to them. The groups that the individual does not join are called outgroups and a sense of us and them becomes part of the group norms.
There are three process that create the in/out group mentality
Social identification. We align with the identity of the group, so we understand how we should act, what is expected of us within the group and how others perceive us.
Social comparison. When we have a social identity within a group, we seek to compare our group favourably against other groups, to maintain our self-confidence.
Social categorisation.
We categorise ourselves and others so that we can understand what is expected of us within the group, the types of behaviour and boundaries within the group. Individuals can be members of various groups at the same time, for example, sports group, music group, family, school group and so on.
Social identity theory of interpersonal behaviour, Tajfel and Turner refer to how opposing groups compete for scarce resources or more information to increases competitive and drive to be better than other groups.
A theory by Erving Goffman (1956) of everyday presentation of self, is predominantly known as a sociological theory however there are some aspects that fit within social psychology theory especially when we look at recent developments in social media and reality TV shows. This relates to how individuals present themselves in order to control or shape how others see them.
An important aspect behind Goffman’s work is about the ways in which we consciously create images of ourselves which we display outwardly to others. As young children, we learn to create distinctive experiences and how to satisfy particular audiences. This is a skill which we develop and learn to use in everyday situations throughout our lives. Goffman says that there are three aspects. Impression management, dramaturgical approach and face work.
An example of Impression management can be seen as how students behave after seeing exam results, this could be extreme in 2020 when students will receive exam results based on a range of assessments and mock exams instead of the formal exams. This could create problems, as the students have been preparing for the exams throughout the two-year programme where the exam syllabus is learnt and taught to the students. However, it is unusual times due to Covid-19, nobody had anticipated the global crisis, so the students had not been given prior knowledge or training towards the assessment process that exam boards would use to award individual grades. Nor had the students been informed at the time that the work would be important and contribute to their overall exam result. Some students will benefit and others will not.
The IB results for 2020 have been published. According to several teachers that I know personally, they state that the international feedback from professionals generally on forums seems to be that the grades are down, on what they would have expected to have been if exams had been taken by the students, also from previous years. At the time of writing this essay, A-level and GCSE results have not been published, however, again there is a feeling that the overall grades will be lower than previous years. This may be relative if the students enter university this academic year, however if they take a gap year, they may be competing against students who have taken exams in 2021 and potentially have an unfair disadvantage. This should be reviewed and allowances given. For example, unconditional places rather than conditional places given to the cohort of 2020 for places at universities starting 2021.
Dramaturgical approach relates to people resembling performers in action. In other words, individuals live up to what is expected of them and they will put on a performance to live up to other people’s expectations of them. Individuals present different images of themselves depending on what is expected of them and wear many different masks to conform and fit within the group.
Facework is an interesting approach and is also described as expressive order. “Saving or losing face” is an important concept in all cultures especially those in Asian countries. Saving face is a positive social value that individuals carry around with them on a daily basis.
Saving face or expressive order is a complex interaction, whereby there are so many unwritten rules. As we all interact and make assumptions about each other throughout our daily lives. This involves individuals accepting aspects or facts that we don’t verify about each other in order to have social interactions with others. For example, you are who you claim to be, who is involved, the power interactions, what each person contributes, sustained obligations and so on. Expressive order is what is happening and who is important, and is described as a “drama” when it is considered that the social rules have been broken.
The group interactions are complex and depend on a lot of different variables working together to make it work. It is accepted that social interactions can be unpredictable or fragile and can fall apart at any moment. We accept that it can be fragile and when it starts to fall apart, the group members work together to repair the damage and re-establish an acceptable working relationship within the group. It may involve someone apologising or making excuses, or leaving the group or others joining the group which will change the dynamics of the group in order to get the expressive order restarted. It is accepted that problems will occur at various stages, and that is not an issue as long as the group members work together to restore order within the group.
It is natural for people to disagree or not comply all of the time as people are not perfect and we all make mistakes at times and that is an acceptable fact of life. No-one can control the actions of another human being; however, you are in control of your own reaction to other people’s behaviour. Therefore, individuals have a responsibility to not make the situation worse, but instead work together to restore or repair the expressive order within the social interactions.
Maintaining the expressive order is an essential part within groups and Goffman refers to a moral commitment to maintain the expressive order. Rituals are important to people and the positive social value that we attach to ourselves contributes to the moral commitment. The moral commitment is essential and must be continually worked on by all members of the group. As individuals we feel threatened by those who lack or don’t commit to the moral commitment and could make the interactions more fragile or unpredictable.
When the groups interact with each other in person, it is easier to assess the environment as you can see people’s gestures and body language, as a lot can be read into a situation by the unspoken interactions with others. For example, if someone’s body language suggest that they are defensive or angry, you may change or vary your approach or interaction with that person, either in a positive or negative way to maintain the expressive order within the social interaction.
However, as more things are going online, especially due to Covid-19, it is important to look at new and creative ways to maintain the expressive order within social interactions online. Over recent months with various countries in lockdown, there has been a big increase in the use of video conferencing websites such as Zoom. This has opened up lots of new opportunities for working from home, or socialising with friends globally to take part in a zoom weekly quiz or other interesting things. Covid-19 has caused significant changes to the way that we access medical and professional services, for example, psychiatrists and psychologists have had to change their working practices to online services.
Professional telehealth services have expanded such as Doxy.me and VSee. According to some professionals, there is a growing feeling that online clinical services are here to stay and that they can be as effective as face-to-face services in some cases, however there is not much research in this area yet. Without the pandemic, the move to introduce online clinical services would have taken years of debate and system issues, instead they have had to be set up and existing online clinical services expended.
Social media, on the other hand can create challenges to the dynamics of groups on occasions. The moral commitment to the working of the group may be harder to sustain over time. Individuals can present themselves very differently on their social media pages, using technology to photoshoot their pictures, making their lives and experiences different to what they have in their everyday lives. They may struggle to live up to the images or masks that they wear via social media.
There is a lot of research that suggest that young people especially struggle when they don’t get a large amount of likes or comments on their posts. Also, instant gratification can be a problem if people don’t like or reply to your message or post within a short space of time (few minutes), especially if they are already online. Some research also refers to an increase in anxiety and other mental health conditions linked to social media and young people.
As emails and social media are part of most people’s lives, sometimes things can be misinterpreted or be inappropriate as the social cues are missing, and you can’t read things like body language. To the extremes, some individuals have felt overwhelmed and unable to cope to the extent that they have ended their lives. Various social media providers have put in place safeguarding measures to try and protect individuals who are struggling to cope for whatever reasons. A rise in reality TV shows has also raised insight into what would normally be individuals’ private lives, this has also created problems for those in the spotlight, either in a positive or negative way.
Conclusion
The two theories analysed in this essay are Schema theory and Social Identity theory. As highlighted throughout, the two theories are very different as one is based on entrenched schemas that we store in our mind about past experiences and influence future decision and choices. Whereas, Social Identity theory is about how we make assumptions and values about each other’s role within the group. The priority in Social Identity theory is about our moral commitment to sustain the working of the group.
In Schema theory, certain cognitive and thought processes occur in individuals when we are in social situations. Schemas are facts that we need to adapt and change. There is an increase in the use of Schema theory in the world of education, and it is growing area in mental health therapies, especially in complex disorders such as personality disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder.
Whereas in the social identify theory, there is so many unwritten rules, Goffman focuses on the masks that people use in everyday dramas, assumptions that we make about each other, and the moral commitment that each individual makes to keep the expressive order working. We describe people who are very skilful at the moral communication as diplomats. The expressive order is going to be challenged at times as humans are not perfect and make mistakes on a regular basis. The expressive order, is the moral communication and commitment that individuals have made to restore the order, quickly making allowances, apologising, or making excuses in order to restore the expressive order within the group. In groups Goffman argues that the moral communication and commitment is the key to restoring groups.
Both theories are widely used and still relevant in todays rapidly changing world to understand about individual’s social identity.
